Zoroastrian or Persian Gods YAZATAS
[External Link Removed for Guests] Mazda (god of creation), Ahriman (god of evil), Ameteretat (goddess of vegetation), Armaiti (goddess of earth), Asha (god of fire), Atar (god of fire), Haurvatat (goddess of water), Kshathra Vairya (god of metal), Mitra (god of light & justice), Vohu Manah (god of animals) Powers/Abilities/Traits: The Yazatas all possess certain superhuman physical attributes. They are true immortals who cease to age upon reaching adulthood, and they cannot die by conventional means. The Yazatas are immune to all terrestrial diseases and are resistant to conventional injury. If a Yazata is wounded, his or her godly life essence will enable him or her to recover at a superhuman rate. It would take an injury of such magnitude that it incinerates a Yazata or disperses a major portion of his or her bodily molecules to cause him or her to die. Even then, it may be possible for a god of greater or equal power, or several gods acting together, to revive the deceased god before the god's life essence is beyond resurrection. Yazata flesh and bone are about two-and-a-half times denser than similar human tissue, contributing to the gods' superhuman strength and weight. An average male god can lift about 25 tons; an average goddess can lift about 20 tons. The gods' metabolism gives them superhuman endurance in all physical activities. In addition, all Yazatas can fly. Many Yazatas possess additional superhuman abilities linked to the elements over which they preside. For instance, the vegetation goddess Ameretat is able to generate and control all plant life. However as the Yazatas' powers are merely extensions of Ahura Mazda's own power, they cannot function independently from their source; if Ahura Mazda were to become incapacitated, the Yazatas' superhuman powers would cease to exist.
History: The Yazatas have been worshipped on the Persian/Iranian plateau and surrounding areas such as Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent from as early as 1000 BC into modern times, although the god Mithra was worshipped as "Mitra" as early as the Hyborian Age. Most of the Yazatas dwell in the Realm of Infinite Time (also known as "Elysium," not to be confused with the Greek Elysian Fields), a "pocket" dimension adjacent to Earth; an interdimensional nexus between the Realm of Infinite Time and Earth exists on Mount Damavand in the Alborz Mountains and at Naqsh-e Rustam (within the modernday nation of Iran). Very little is known about the Realm of Infinite Time other than it contains the "House of Song" where many of the Yazatas convene. The Yazatas are called different names by their human worshippers; for example, the creator god Ahura Mazda is known as "Auramazda" in Old Persian, "Aramazd" in Armenian, "Armazi" in Georgian, and "Ohrmazd" in New Persian.
The Yazatas' precise origin, like that of all Earth's pantheons, is shrouded in legend. According to ancient Zoroastrian lore, the creator god Ahura Mazda emerged from Zurvan, the personification of infinite time. The wise and benevolent Ahura Mazda - who represented truth, order, and justice - set about to populate his domain with life. However, a second figure also emerged from infinite time soon after: the evil Ahriman - the twisted mirror image and antithesis of Ahura Mazda. Personifying deceit and chaos, Ahriman rejected Ahura Mazda's peace offerings and attempted to kill the life that Ahura Mazda had created. Although he abhorred conflict, Ahura Mazda reluctantly opposed Ahriman in order to protect his creations. After a prolonged battle, Ahura Mazda narrowly overcame his dark counterpart and banished him to the Nether Realms. In preparation for Ahriman's eventual return, Ahura Mazda created the Yazatas - lesser gods imbued with portions of his own divine power who were similarly dedicated to upholding order and justice. The primordial Earth Mother Gaea recognized Ahura Mazda as a kindred spirit and also offered her services in opposing Ahriman; to the Yazatas, she became known as "Armaiti." Over 15,000 years ago, Ahura Mazda appointed Mithra, god of light & justice, to serve as his representative on Earth. Mithra primarily came to be worshipped by a number of monotheistic religions during the Hyborian Age, and occasionally intervened directly to protect humanity from the Elder God Set and other demons such as Molub and Xotli. Mithra and his priests were frequent allies of the Cimmerian warrior Conan, later king of Aquilonia.
Not to be outdone, the banished Ahriman created the Divs, demonic gods designed for the sole purpose of opposing the Yazatas. Since then, Ahura Mazda's Yazatas and Ahriman's Divs have waged an endless war against each other, often using mortal pawns in each side's attempt to gain the upper hand. Ahriman also created magical talismans to foment chaos and strife in the Earth realm. One such talisman was the "Heart of Ahriman," a golden orb capable of greatly enhancing magical powers; although Ahura Mazda transformed the Heart of Ahriman, so that it typically released pure, white magic, though its power could still be used for evil. In approximately 13000 BC, the Heart of Ahriman fell into the hands of the Xaltotun, a High Priest of Set, in the Acheronian city of Python. The Heart was eventually stolen from Xaltotun and used to bring about the Acheronian Empire's fall. Three millennia later, the Heart was located in Aquilonia by the dark mage Orastes, who used the Heart's power to resurrect Xaltotun in Stygia's subterranean lairs. Reunited with the Heart, Xaltotun used its power to overthrow the governments of Aquilonia and Nemedia. However, the Heart was again stolen from Xaltotun and retrieved by King Conan, who gave it to Hadrathus, a priest of Asura. Hadrathus used the Heart to counter Xaltotun's spells, enabling Conan to kill him.
(Marvel Two-in-One#49) - Another talisman created by Ahriman was the "Eye of Ahriman," a red jewel capable of augmenting existing magical power. In the late 18th century, Ennis Tremellyn, a High Priest of Ahriman, was aboard a ship that sunk off the New England coast. Using the Eye of Ahriman's power, Tremellyn bound his life essence to Kemo, a Polynesian sailor who was mystically kept alive within the sunken ship for centuries. In modern times, when the planets came into the proper alignment, Kemo was reanimated under Tremellyn's control. Tremellyn sent Kemo to attack the descendants of his enemy, the Marquis de Crawlings; but the Thing (Ben Grimm) thwarted Kemo's efforts while Sorcerer Supreme Dr. Stephen Strange defeated Tremellyn on the astral plane.
آشنایی با اساتیر ملل(انگلیسی)
مدیران انجمن: رونین, شوراي نظارت
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- پست: 934
- تاریخ عضویت: پنجشنبه ۱۶ آبان ۱۳۸۷, ۸:۲۸ ب.ظ
- سپاسهای ارسالی: 1043 بار
- سپاسهای دریافتی: 3151 بار
Re: آشنایی با اساتیر ملل(انگلیسی)
)RUSSIAN/SLAVIC GODS)
[External Link Removed for Guests]
Ajysyt, Dazhbog (god of light), Lada (goddess of beauty & youth), Perun (god of thunder), Svantovit (god of war), Stribog (god of the wind & sky), Svarozvich (god of fire), Milda (goddess of love), Laima (goddess of fate & luck), Marzana (goddess of witchcraft), Saule (goddess of the sun), Svarog (god of the sun & sky), Veles (god of the underworld)
Dievas have been worshipped by the Slavic people inhabiting Eastern Europe, Central Europe, and the Balkans from as early as 700 BC until approximately the 10th century AD. Most of the Dievas dwell in Svarga, a "pocket" dimension adjacent to Earth; an interdimensional nexus between Svarga and Earth exists somewhere in the proximity of the Zbruch River (in the modern-day nation of Ukraine). Very little is known about Svarga other than it appears to be built on a small planetary object. The Dievas are called different names by their human worshippers; for example, the underworld god Veles was known as "Weles" in Polish.
The Dievas' precise origin, like that of all Earth's pantheons, is shrouded in legend. According to Slavic folklore, the primordial god Rod emerged on Earth following the Demogorge's purging of the demonic Elder Gods, and set out to bring order to the chaotic world by establishing the universal laws known as Prav. He eventually crossed paths with the primordial Earth Mother Gaea (known as "Erce" to the Dievas) and accompanied her back to his native realm of Svarga, where she gave birth to Praamzius, the god of time. After siring a host of other offspring, Rod was succeeded as pantheon leader by Praamzius, who was in turn succeeded by his son Svarog, the god of the sun & sky.
Svarog granted portions of his power to each of his children. However, Perun, the rugged and boisterous thunder god, usurped the largest share of power in an attempt to gain his father's favor. He was eventually challenged by Veles, the therianthropic death god, who kidnapped Perun's wife Saule, the sun goddess. Perun chased Veles into his underworld realm of Virey; although Veles transformed into a dragon and attacked his pursuer, he was ultimately defeated by Perun. Following Russian King Vladimir the Great's conversion to Christianity in approximately 980 AD, Svarog determined that it was in his pantheon's best interest to return to their native realm of Svarga and cut off most ties with the Earth
[External Link Removed for Guests]
Ajysyt, Dazhbog (god of light), Lada (goddess of beauty & youth), Perun (god of thunder), Svantovit (god of war), Stribog (god of the wind & sky), Svarozvich (god of fire), Milda (goddess of love), Laima (goddess of fate & luck), Marzana (goddess of witchcraft), Saule (goddess of the sun), Svarog (god of the sun & sky), Veles (god of the underworld)
Dievas have been worshipped by the Slavic people inhabiting Eastern Europe, Central Europe, and the Balkans from as early as 700 BC until approximately the 10th century AD. Most of the Dievas dwell in Svarga, a "pocket" dimension adjacent to Earth; an interdimensional nexus between Svarga and Earth exists somewhere in the proximity of the Zbruch River (in the modern-day nation of Ukraine). Very little is known about Svarga other than it appears to be built on a small planetary object. The Dievas are called different names by their human worshippers; for example, the underworld god Veles was known as "Weles" in Polish.
The Dievas' precise origin, like that of all Earth's pantheons, is shrouded in legend. According to Slavic folklore, the primordial god Rod emerged on Earth following the Demogorge's purging of the demonic Elder Gods, and set out to bring order to the chaotic world by establishing the universal laws known as Prav. He eventually crossed paths with the primordial Earth Mother Gaea (known as "Erce" to the Dievas) and accompanied her back to his native realm of Svarga, where she gave birth to Praamzius, the god of time. After siring a host of other offspring, Rod was succeeded as pantheon leader by Praamzius, who was in turn succeeded by his son Svarog, the god of the sun & sky.
Svarog granted portions of his power to each of his children. However, Perun, the rugged and boisterous thunder god, usurped the largest share of power in an attempt to gain his father's favor. He was eventually challenged by Veles, the therianthropic death god, who kidnapped Perun's wife Saule, the sun goddess. Perun chased Veles into his underworld realm of Virey; although Veles transformed into a dragon and attacked his pursuer, he was ultimately defeated by Perun. Following Russian King Vladimir the Great's conversion to Christianity in approximately 980 AD, Svarog determined that it was in his pantheon's best interest to return to their native realm of Svarga and cut off most ties with the Earth
Work hard in silence
Let your success
Be your noise
Let your success
Be your noise
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- پست: 934
- تاریخ عضویت: پنجشنبه ۱۶ آبان ۱۳۸۷, ۸:۲۸ ب.ظ
- سپاسهای ارسالی: 1043 بار
- سپاسهای دریافتی: 3151 بار
Re: آشنایی با اساتیر ملل(انگلیسی)
[External Link Removed for Guests]
بلیندی
به معنی کوری، یکی از لقبهای اودین سرور خدایان اسیر در اساطیر نورس بود. این لقب را از آن جهت گرفت که یک چشم خود را به ازای جرعهای از چاه خرد داد
بور
بور یا Bor از نخستین مردان در اسطوره های اسکاندیناوی و پسر بوری میباشد. بور با ماده غولی به نام بستلا که دختر یک غول یخی به نام بولثورن بود ازدواج کرد. بور و بستلا سه فرزند داشتند که سه خدای نخستین بودند: اودین، ویلی، وه.
بیفروست
بیفروست Bifrost که بعضی آنرا رنگین کمان و بعضی راه شیری دانسته اند، پلی است که میدگارد را به آسگارد متصل می سازد و تنها راه ورود به آسگارد است. به همین دلیل است که هایمدال همواره از کاخ خود هیمینبیورگ که مشرف بر این پل است، مراقبتی بی وقفه به عمل می آورد تا از غافلگیری خدایان توسط یوتون ها جلوگیری کند.
بیفروست یکی از ساخته های جادویی اسیر است و به همین دلیل آنرا آسبرو هم می نامند. این پل بسیار مستحکم است اما گفته شده که در راگناروک، در پایان جهان، این پل نیز ویران خواهد شد.
خدایان هر روز برای رفتن به اورداربرونر، چاه سرنوشت، و برگزاری جلساتی که در آن اعمال انسانها را به قضاوت نشسته و سرنوشت آنها را رقم می زنند، از روی این پل عبور می کنند.
تیر
تیر Tyr خدایی است اصالتا برگرفته از اساطیر ژرمنی که در اساطیر نورس از خدایان جنگ و همچنین خدای حامی عدالت به شمار می رفته است. تیر همچنین منادی و قراول اودین نیز بوده است که خود خدای جنگ است. تیر را فرزند اودین و فریگ (و در برخی منابع فرزند یکی از ژیانها به نام هیمیر) می دانستند. او دلیر ترین خدایان است و در میدان جنگ نیز از او طلب جرات و جسارت می کردند.
تیر را معمولا به صورت مردی با یک دست تصویر می کردند زیرا دست راست او توسط گرگ عظیم الجثه فنریر قطع شده بود. از این رو در زبان اسکاندیناوی قدیم به مفصل مچ، مفصل گرگ می گفتند. گنجینه مشهور تیر یک نیزه است که علاوه بر اینکه یک سلاح به شمار می رود سمبل و نشانه عدالت نیز هست.
در راگناروک تیر هیولایی به شکل سگ به نام گارم را که نگهبان هل می باشد در جنگ از پا در می آورد اما خود نیز بر اثر زخمهایی که جانور به او وارد کرده می میرد.
در دورانهای بعدی اسطوره شناسان واژه تیر را معادلی برای خدا در نظر می گرفتند.
تیر را همچنین تیواز، تیو و زیو نیز می نامند. در زبان انگلیسی قدیم نام او تیو بوده است.
[External Link Removed for Guests]
بلیندی
به معنی کوری، یکی از لقبهای اودین سرور خدایان اسیر در اساطیر نورس بود. این لقب را از آن جهت گرفت که یک چشم خود را به ازای جرعهای از چاه خرد داد
بور
بور یا Bor از نخستین مردان در اسطوره های اسکاندیناوی و پسر بوری میباشد. بور با ماده غولی به نام بستلا که دختر یک غول یخی به نام بولثورن بود ازدواج کرد. بور و بستلا سه فرزند داشتند که سه خدای نخستین بودند: اودین، ویلی، وه.
بیفروست
بیفروست Bifrost که بعضی آنرا رنگین کمان و بعضی راه شیری دانسته اند، پلی است که میدگارد را به آسگارد متصل می سازد و تنها راه ورود به آسگارد است. به همین دلیل است که هایمدال همواره از کاخ خود هیمینبیورگ که مشرف بر این پل است، مراقبتی بی وقفه به عمل می آورد تا از غافلگیری خدایان توسط یوتون ها جلوگیری کند.
بیفروست یکی از ساخته های جادویی اسیر است و به همین دلیل آنرا آسبرو هم می نامند. این پل بسیار مستحکم است اما گفته شده که در راگناروک، در پایان جهان، این پل نیز ویران خواهد شد.
خدایان هر روز برای رفتن به اورداربرونر، چاه سرنوشت، و برگزاری جلساتی که در آن اعمال انسانها را به قضاوت نشسته و سرنوشت آنها را رقم می زنند، از روی این پل عبور می کنند.
تیر
تیر Tyr خدایی است اصالتا برگرفته از اساطیر ژرمنی که در اساطیر نورس از خدایان جنگ و همچنین خدای حامی عدالت به شمار می رفته است. تیر همچنین منادی و قراول اودین نیز بوده است که خود خدای جنگ است. تیر را فرزند اودین و فریگ (و در برخی منابع فرزند یکی از ژیانها به نام هیمیر) می دانستند. او دلیر ترین خدایان است و در میدان جنگ نیز از او طلب جرات و جسارت می کردند.
تیر را معمولا به صورت مردی با یک دست تصویر می کردند زیرا دست راست او توسط گرگ عظیم الجثه فنریر قطع شده بود. از این رو در زبان اسکاندیناوی قدیم به مفصل مچ، مفصل گرگ می گفتند. گنجینه مشهور تیر یک نیزه است که علاوه بر اینکه یک سلاح به شمار می رود سمبل و نشانه عدالت نیز هست.
در راگناروک تیر هیولایی به شکل سگ به نام گارم را که نگهبان هل می باشد در جنگ از پا در می آورد اما خود نیز بر اثر زخمهایی که جانور به او وارد کرده می میرد.
در دورانهای بعدی اسطوره شناسان واژه تیر را معادلی برای خدا در نظر می گرفتند.
تیر را همچنین تیواز، تیو و زیو نیز می نامند. در زبان انگلیسی قدیم نام او تیو بوده است.
[External Link Removed for Guests]
Work hard in silence
Let your success
Be your noise
Let your success
Be your noise
-
- پست: 934
- تاریخ عضویت: پنجشنبه ۱۶ آبان ۱۳۸۷, ۸:۲۸ ب.ظ
- سپاسهای ارسالی: 1043 بار
- سپاسهای دریافتی: 3151 بار
Re: آشنایی با اساتیر ملل(انگلیسی)
AFRICAN GODS
[External Link Removed for Guests]
(god of wisdom & trickery), Avlekete (goddess of the sea), Buluku (god of the sky), Dam-Ayido (aka Damballah, god of serpents), Eleggua (aka Eschu, god of crossroads & communication), Ezili (aka Oshun, goddess of love), Gorilla God/Ghekre (god of judgment), Kibuka, Legba(god of gateways), Lusa, Mahu, Moondog, Nana (Gaea), Ogun (god of war), Oya (goddess of wind), Sagbata (aka Baron Samedi, god of death & disease), Shango (aka Xevioso, god of thunder & lightning)
( - The Vodū (also known as the "Orishas" or West African gods) are a race of superhumanly powerful humanoid beings first worshipped by the Fon people of Dahomey (in the modern-day nation of Benin) and the Yoruba people of the Niger River valley (in the modern-day nation of Nigeria) as early as the 12th century. Most of the Vodū dwell in the Orun, the Great Beyond, a small "pocket" dimension adjacent to Earth; several interdimensional nexuses between Orun and Earth exist throughout the African continent, including one near the ancient Yoruban city of Ife (located in modern-day Osun State, Nigeria). Very little is known about Orun other than it appears to be built upon a small planetary object. The Vodū are called different names by their human worshippers; for example, the Vodū Sky Father Buluku is known as "Olorun" by the Yorubans, as "Nyame" by the Ashanti, as "Ndriananahary" to the Malagasyspeaking people of Madagascar, and as "Olodumare" by practitioners of Cuban Santeria. To the Baganda of the African Great Lakes region, Buluku was known as "Mukasa" and sired their war god, Kibuka. To the Baoulé of West Africa, he was known as "Alouroua" and fathered Ghekre, who would later be worshipped as the "Gorilla God" by the White Gorilla Cult of Wakanda's Jabari tribe.
In recent centuries, the Vodū's mortal followers incorporated aspects of Christianity into their worship of Buluku and his offspring. Today, these worshippers are concentrated in Western Africa, the Caribbean (particularly Haiti and Cuba), and Central America. Through ritualistic propitiation and invocations directed toward a particular Vodū or loa, mortals can tap their patron god's power. Sometimes, the Vodū even go as far as possessing mortals who invoke their names, temporarily taking over the mortal worshipper's conscious personality.
The Vodū's precise origin, like that of all Earth's pantheons, is shrouded in legend. According to ancient myths, Buluku, the supreme all-father of the Vodū, merged with the primordial Earth Mother Gaea (later known among the Vodū alternatively as "Nana," "Ale," and "Asase Ya"), and sired twin offspring: The sun god Lusa and the moon goddess Mahu. As a result of this merging, the "supreme creator" was sometimes worshipped by mortals as the androgynous "Nana Buluku." Vodū worshippers believe that Lusa and Mahu joined forces to create the mortal world, mortal life, and mortal technology in four days' time. Buluku remained in Orun, content to leave this newborn mortal world's care to his children. Lusa and Mahu, in turn, sired several divine pairs of twins, including Avlekete and Ezili, Ogun and Shango, Dam-Ayido Wede and Sagbata, and Eschu and Legba. Lusa, Mahu, and their family became directly active in mortal affairs and descended to the ancient city of Ife, the legendary first city of the Yoruba people. Eventually, their twins, who each possessed a unique aspect of Buluku's omnipotence, strayed from Ife and settled in other mortal cities in Western Africa.
[External Link Removed for Guests]
(god of wisdom & trickery), Avlekete (goddess of the sea), Buluku (god of the sky), Dam-Ayido (aka Damballah, god of serpents), Eleggua (aka Eschu, god of crossroads & communication), Ezili (aka Oshun, goddess of love), Gorilla God/Ghekre (god of judgment), Kibuka, Legba(god of gateways), Lusa, Mahu, Moondog, Nana (Gaea), Ogun (god of war), Oya (goddess of wind), Sagbata (aka Baron Samedi, god of death & disease), Shango (aka Xevioso, god of thunder & lightning)
( - The Vodū (also known as the "Orishas" or West African gods) are a race of superhumanly powerful humanoid beings first worshipped by the Fon people of Dahomey (in the modern-day nation of Benin) and the Yoruba people of the Niger River valley (in the modern-day nation of Nigeria) as early as the 12th century. Most of the Vodū dwell in the Orun, the Great Beyond, a small "pocket" dimension adjacent to Earth; several interdimensional nexuses between Orun and Earth exist throughout the African continent, including one near the ancient Yoruban city of Ife (located in modern-day Osun State, Nigeria). Very little is known about Orun other than it appears to be built upon a small planetary object. The Vodū are called different names by their human worshippers; for example, the Vodū Sky Father Buluku is known as "Olorun" by the Yorubans, as "Nyame" by the Ashanti, as "Ndriananahary" to the Malagasyspeaking people of Madagascar, and as "Olodumare" by practitioners of Cuban Santeria. To the Baganda of the African Great Lakes region, Buluku was known as "Mukasa" and sired their war god, Kibuka. To the Baoulé of West Africa, he was known as "Alouroua" and fathered Ghekre, who would later be worshipped as the "Gorilla God" by the White Gorilla Cult of Wakanda's Jabari tribe.
In recent centuries, the Vodū's mortal followers incorporated aspects of Christianity into their worship of Buluku and his offspring. Today, these worshippers are concentrated in Western Africa, the Caribbean (particularly Haiti and Cuba), and Central America. Through ritualistic propitiation and invocations directed toward a particular Vodū or loa, mortals can tap their patron god's power. Sometimes, the Vodū even go as far as possessing mortals who invoke their names, temporarily taking over the mortal worshipper's conscious personality.
The Vodū's precise origin, like that of all Earth's pantheons, is shrouded in legend. According to ancient myths, Buluku, the supreme all-father of the Vodū, merged with the primordial Earth Mother Gaea (later known among the Vodū alternatively as "Nana," "Ale," and "Asase Ya"), and sired twin offspring: The sun god Lusa and the moon goddess Mahu. As a result of this merging, the "supreme creator" was sometimes worshipped by mortals as the androgynous "Nana Buluku." Vodū worshippers believe that Lusa and Mahu joined forces to create the mortal world, mortal life, and mortal technology in four days' time. Buluku remained in Orun, content to leave this newborn mortal world's care to his children. Lusa and Mahu, in turn, sired several divine pairs of twins, including Avlekete and Ezili, Ogun and Shango, Dam-Ayido Wede and Sagbata, and Eschu and Legba. Lusa, Mahu, and their family became directly active in mortal affairs and descended to the ancient city of Ife, the legendary first city of the Yoruba people. Eventually, their twins, who each possessed a unique aspect of Buluku's omnipotence, strayed from Ife and settled in other mortal cities in Western Africa.
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Re: آشنایی با اساتیر ملل(انگلیسی)
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- پست: 934
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Re: آشنایی با اساتیر ملل(انگلیسی)
Iranian battle-mask, from the Safavid Dynasty.16th-18th c
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- تاریخ عضویت: پنجشنبه ۱۶ آبان ۱۳۸۷, ۸:۲۸ ب.ظ
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Re: آشنایی با اساتیر ملل(انگلیسی)
The Norman Kingdom of Sicily I
By 1080 Normans warriors, under the leadership of Robert Guiscard of the powerful Hauteville family, were in control of southern Italy and Robert was recognised by the Pope as Dukes of Apulia. The next step was to be the conquest of Sicily, which had been ruled by Moslems from North Africa (conveniently referred to as “Saracens”) since 902. Under their government, north African farming methods suitable for a dry climate and many new crops had been introduced to the island, such as sugarcane, oranges, lemons and pomegranates. Their capital, Palermo, was perhaps the largest cities in Europe, with 300,000 inhabitants. But by the 11th century the Sicilian Saracens were wasting much of their energies fighting each other, opening the door for invasion.
Even so, conquest took years of fighting, The key city of Palermo was taken 1072, and the rest of island fell bit by bit. After a protracted campaign Roger completed the task, and in 1098, after once again assisting the Pope out of difficulties in Rome, Roger was given title of “Great Count of Sicily”. Roger was no just a warrior but a man of high intelligence, and so, uniquely for his time, he followed policy of religious toleration for the Moslems, Jews and Greeks who made up most of his new territory, the island’s prosperity soon revived. He died aged 70 in 1101; the last of his generation of Hautevilles.
Roger’s territory inherited by son, another Roger, aged just 5 at his father’s death He had been brought up in Palermo by his Lombard mother Adelaide and educated by Greeks and Saracens, and grew up speaking all theses languages. He took an elevated view of his authority; and was intent on ruling autocratically in the traditions inherited from the Byzantine Empire and the Saracen Sultans. (Norman traditions, by contrast were more democratic, with a king effectively elected by his nobles, who reserved the right to resist him if he tried to coerce them unjustly). This, combined with the fact that Roger always preferred diplomacy to war, made him appear hardly a Norman at all!
Roger’s authority was helped by a lack of serious rivals: of his cousins, the sons of Robert Guiscard, the great warrior Bohemond was away on crusade, and Roger Borsa, who had inherited the Dukedom of Apulia, was a weak ruler. When Roger Borsa died in 1111, followed by his childless son William in 1127, Roger of Sicily was able to reunite all the Norman territories in southern Italy under his rule. In 1130 he achieved the summit of his ambitions. Once again, there was a disputed election to the Papacy. The rulers of France and Germany, together with most leading churchmen favoured one candidate, Innocent II, so his rival, Anacletus II (who was part-Jewish in ancestry) fled to Roger for help. Roger swore homage to Analectus and gave him a tribute of gold, and in return was given a crown: he was now officially King of Sicily, Duke of Apulia and Calabria, with the principality of Capua and the honour of Naples. The comparison which springs to mind is his Norman near-contemporary, William the Conqueror in England. But at that time southern Italy and Sicily were vastly richer and more important than
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By 1080 Normans warriors, under the leadership of Robert Guiscard of the powerful Hauteville family, were in control of southern Italy and Robert was recognised by the Pope as Dukes of Apulia. The next step was to be the conquest of Sicily, which had been ruled by Moslems from North Africa (conveniently referred to as “Saracens”) since 902. Under their government, north African farming methods suitable for a dry climate and many new crops had been introduced to the island, such as sugarcane, oranges, lemons and pomegranates. Their capital, Palermo, was perhaps the largest cities in Europe, with 300,000 inhabitants. But by the 11th century the Sicilian Saracens were wasting much of their energies fighting each other, opening the door for invasion.
Even so, conquest took years of fighting, The key city of Palermo was taken 1072, and the rest of island fell bit by bit. After a protracted campaign Roger completed the task, and in 1098, after once again assisting the Pope out of difficulties in Rome, Roger was given title of “Great Count of Sicily”. Roger was no just a warrior but a man of high intelligence, and so, uniquely for his time, he followed policy of religious toleration for the Moslems, Jews and Greeks who made up most of his new territory, the island’s prosperity soon revived. He died aged 70 in 1101; the last of his generation of Hautevilles.
Roger’s territory inherited by son, another Roger, aged just 5 at his father’s death He had been brought up in Palermo by his Lombard mother Adelaide and educated by Greeks and Saracens, and grew up speaking all theses languages. He took an elevated view of his authority; and was intent on ruling autocratically in the traditions inherited from the Byzantine Empire and the Saracen Sultans. (Norman traditions, by contrast were more democratic, with a king effectively elected by his nobles, who reserved the right to resist him if he tried to coerce them unjustly). This, combined with the fact that Roger always preferred diplomacy to war, made him appear hardly a Norman at all!
Roger’s authority was helped by a lack of serious rivals: of his cousins, the sons of Robert Guiscard, the great warrior Bohemond was away on crusade, and Roger Borsa, who had inherited the Dukedom of Apulia, was a weak ruler. When Roger Borsa died in 1111, followed by his childless son William in 1127, Roger of Sicily was able to reunite all the Norman territories in southern Italy under his rule. In 1130 he achieved the summit of his ambitions. Once again, there was a disputed election to the Papacy. The rulers of France and Germany, together with most leading churchmen favoured one candidate, Innocent II, so his rival, Anacletus II (who was part-Jewish in ancestry) fled to Roger for help. Roger swore homage to Analectus and gave him a tribute of gold, and in return was given a crown: he was now officially King of Sicily, Duke of Apulia and Calabria, with the principality of Capua and the honour of Naples. The comparison which springs to mind is his Norman near-contemporary, William the Conqueror in England. But at that time southern Italy and Sicily were vastly richer and more important than
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- تاریخ عضویت: پنجشنبه ۱۶ آبان ۱۳۸۷, ۸:۲۸ ب.ظ
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Re: آشنایی با اساتیر ملل(انگلیسی)
Norman Kingdom of Sicily
’s position secure in Sicily, but not on mainland, where barons always welcomed an excuse to rebel, thus giving outside forces a chance to intervene. In 1137, Pope Innocent II, angry at continued Norman support for his rival Analectus, called on the Emperor Lothair to assist him, and Imperial troops swept through southern Italy, storming any city that resisted and hanging and mutilating opponents. (The citadel at Salerno, which held out, was governed for Roger by an Englishman, Robert of Selby). Even religious shrines were pillaged by the invaders. (The great abbey at Monte Cassino was left unscathed, but the abbot, who was friend of Roger, was deposed) After initial defeats, Roger did not attempt to do battle, and in the end his patience paid off. In late 1137, the Emperor Lothair fell ill and died and most of his army retreated back to Germany, and this was followed a month later by death of Pope Anacletus. The way now open for a deal, especially when April 1139 Pope Innocent was ambushed and taken prisoner by Roger’s troops. Typically, Roger now swore homage to the Pope, agreed to pay tribute, and in return was officially recognised as King of Sicily.
Roger ruled a peaceful multiracial kingdom in Sicily, very much on Byzantine/Arab lines, unlike the turbulent mainland, . His most trusted advisor was a Syrian Greek, George of Antioch, who bore the title “Emir of the Sea”, Emir-al-bahr, from which comes “Admiral”. His financial system was largely run by Saracens, the administration bearing the Arab name “divan”, from which comes the French word for Customs, “douaine”.
He was deeply interested in the sciences, especially geography, and employed Arab scholars to compile all that was known about the world in a production known as “the Book of Roger”; the first page reading “the world is round, like a sphere”. In fact, he hardly behaved like a Norman at all, and did not encourage Norman knights to settle in Sicily, mistrusting their tendency to start rebellions and feuds against each other.
In 1147 came the Second Crusade, which proved a fiasco. Roger, typically, refused to get involved, and instead took the opportunity to plunder the Greek coast, carrying away vast quantities of goods and hundreds of silk workers, mostly Jewish, to boost Sicilian production. He also seized Malta, plus Tripoli and other bases in North Africa.
Roger died in 1154, aged 58. His three eldest sons had predeceased him, leaving only William, known as “the Bad” (to distinguish him from his son, William II, “the Good“ - though the epithet “bad” was only given by chronicler much later) William was not so much wicked as lazy and irresolute, though he was a brave soldier, physically extremely strong, and capable of bestirring himself to sudden violent action at moments of crisis. His reign was a troubled one, with major rebellions by Norman barons on the mainland, perpetual danger of war with the Byzantines and with new Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick Barbarossa. In Palermo itself, his unpopular chief minister was assassinated in 1161 by Norman nobles, who then arrested William himself and attempted to force him to abdicate. William survived, at the cost of pardoning the murderers, but in the fighting the royal palace was pillaged of its treasures and William’s eldest son was killed. Equally dangerously, interracial tension built up during the troubles, with massacres of Saracens by Christians, and the bases in North Africa were lost. William died of dysentery in 1166, aged 46, leaving as his successor his son, William “the Good”, aged only 12. After a chaotic regency under his mother Margaret, young William’s reign was generally peaceful, but he made no efforts at reform, and the great multiracial civilization of Sicily gradually declined. But in 1182, William thought he saw a dramatic opportunity for greatness.
In Constantinople, the Emperor Manuel Comnenus had died, leaving only an 11-year-old boy, Alexis. He seems to have been an unpleasant youth, and his mother Mary, left as regent, was even worse. A member of the royal family, Andronicus, aged 64, who had lived in internal exile after a thoroughly disreputable and violent life, marched on the capital & seized power. The young Emperor, his mother and their supporters were arrested and soon expired with official assistance, and Andronicus then married Alexis’s betrothed wife, Agnes, daughter of the King of France, who was aged only 12!
It is difficult to know what to make of Andronicus. He was an energetic Emperor who attempted serious reforms, but he also initiated a reign of terror, torturing and executing suspected enemies. Soon surviving members of royal family appeared in west, begging for help. Ever since the days of Bohemond on the First Crusade, Normans had held visions of themselves as the rulers of Constantinople. Now in 1185 William assembled enormous force: 80,000 soldiers & 300 ships: for an invasion of the Byzantine Empire. William did not lead the expedition himself: in fact he never commanded forces in battle, showing how un-Norman the family had become! The army landed unopposed at Durazzo, in what is now Albania, and marched to Thessalonica, the second city of empire. Andronicus seemed incapable of organising resistance, and in August, Thessalonica fell, with appalling scenes of looting and the slaughter of perhaps 5,000 civilians. But then epidemics set in and the invaders were decimated before the march was resumed eastwards. The fleet was sent on ahead, to wait off Constantinople for the arrival of the land forces. But the army never got there! In September, the citizens of Constantinople, provoked beyond endurance, rose in revolt & proclaimed a nobleman, Isaac Angelus, as Emperor. The Great Palace stormed by mob and looted of the treasure of 800 years. Andronicus was caught trying to escape and was taken to Hippodrome, where he was publicly tortured to death. With sudden energy, the Byzantine army first turned back the Sicilian advance forces, put the main army off-guard by proposing peace talks, then suddenly turned on them and routed them. With the fleet not there in support, the army had to retreat back to the Adriatic coast over winter, through hostile territory, and only a few made it back home.
In 1186, William did a strange and ultimately fatal thing. He was married to Joanna, daughter of Henry II of England, but had no children, so the heir to his kingdom was thus his aunt, Constance, aged 31 but still unmarried. William now decided to marry her off to Henry, aged 21, son of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. This seems inexplicable. The Emperors always been enemies of the Sicilian kingdom, and were currently involved in a violent attempt to crush the independent cities of northern Italy: If Henry claimed the Sicilian throne through his wife, this would end the independence of the kingdom, and the Pope was unlikely to be happy at such a gigantic increase of Imperial power!
But for the moment, everyone’s attention was fixed on other matters. In July 1187 in Palestine the largest army the crusaders had ever put together was destroyed by Saladin at the Horns of Hattin, and in October, Jerusalem itself was forced to surrender to the conqueror (though without any violence). The new pope, Gregory VIII, at once proclaimed a new crusade, and all leading kings of Europe took up the call: Frederick Barbarossa, Philip Augustus of France, Richard the Lionheart of England, and William of Sicily, who, unlike his ancestors, was an enthusiastic crusader. The Sicilian fleet was already crucial in defending the remaining crusader cities against Saladin, and William began to raise forces; but then in 1189 he died, aged only 36 and still childless. He became known to posterity as “William the Good”, and in later years his reign was looked back on as a peaceful golden age for Sicily, but really had not been a success at all; especially in his failure to provide for the future! He is nowr emembered mostly for building the great cathedral at Monreale, which caused the Archbishop of Palermo, an Englishman, Walter of the Mill, to retaliate by himself building a new cathedral in the
’s position secure in Sicily, but not on mainland, where barons always welcomed an excuse to rebel, thus giving outside forces a chance to intervene. In 1137, Pope Innocent II, angry at continued Norman support for his rival Analectus, called on the Emperor Lothair to assist him, and Imperial troops swept through southern Italy, storming any city that resisted and hanging and mutilating opponents. (The citadel at Salerno, which held out, was governed for Roger by an Englishman, Robert of Selby). Even religious shrines were pillaged by the invaders. (The great abbey at Monte Cassino was left unscathed, but the abbot, who was friend of Roger, was deposed) After initial defeats, Roger did not attempt to do battle, and in the end his patience paid off. In late 1137, the Emperor Lothair fell ill and died and most of his army retreated back to Germany, and this was followed a month later by death of Pope Anacletus. The way now open for a deal, especially when April 1139 Pope Innocent was ambushed and taken prisoner by Roger’s troops. Typically, Roger now swore homage to the Pope, agreed to pay tribute, and in return was officially recognised as King of Sicily.
Roger ruled a peaceful multiracial kingdom in Sicily, very much on Byzantine/Arab lines, unlike the turbulent mainland, . His most trusted advisor was a Syrian Greek, George of Antioch, who bore the title “Emir of the Sea”, Emir-al-bahr, from which comes “Admiral”. His financial system was largely run by Saracens, the administration bearing the Arab name “divan”, from which comes the French word for Customs, “douaine”.
He was deeply interested in the sciences, especially geography, and employed Arab scholars to compile all that was known about the world in a production known as “the Book of Roger”; the first page reading “the world is round, like a sphere”. In fact, he hardly behaved like a Norman at all, and did not encourage Norman knights to settle in Sicily, mistrusting their tendency to start rebellions and feuds against each other.
In 1147 came the Second Crusade, which proved a fiasco. Roger, typically, refused to get involved, and instead took the opportunity to plunder the Greek coast, carrying away vast quantities of goods and hundreds of silk workers, mostly Jewish, to boost Sicilian production. He also seized Malta, plus Tripoli and other bases in North Africa.
Roger died in 1154, aged 58. His three eldest sons had predeceased him, leaving only William, known as “the Bad” (to distinguish him from his son, William II, “the Good“ - though the epithet “bad” was only given by chronicler much later) William was not so much wicked as lazy and irresolute, though he was a brave soldier, physically extremely strong, and capable of bestirring himself to sudden violent action at moments of crisis. His reign was a troubled one, with major rebellions by Norman barons on the mainland, perpetual danger of war with the Byzantines and with new Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick Barbarossa. In Palermo itself, his unpopular chief minister was assassinated in 1161 by Norman nobles, who then arrested William himself and attempted to force him to abdicate. William survived, at the cost of pardoning the murderers, but in the fighting the royal palace was pillaged of its treasures and William’s eldest son was killed. Equally dangerously, interracial tension built up during the troubles, with massacres of Saracens by Christians, and the bases in North Africa were lost. William died of dysentery in 1166, aged 46, leaving as his successor his son, William “the Good”, aged only 12. After a chaotic regency under his mother Margaret, young William’s reign was generally peaceful, but he made no efforts at reform, and the great multiracial civilization of Sicily gradually declined. But in 1182, William thought he saw a dramatic opportunity for greatness.
In Constantinople, the Emperor Manuel Comnenus had died, leaving only an 11-year-old boy, Alexis. He seems to have been an unpleasant youth, and his mother Mary, left as regent, was even worse. A member of the royal family, Andronicus, aged 64, who had lived in internal exile after a thoroughly disreputable and violent life, marched on the capital & seized power. The young Emperor, his mother and their supporters were arrested and soon expired with official assistance, and Andronicus then married Alexis’s betrothed wife, Agnes, daughter of the King of France, who was aged only 12!
It is difficult to know what to make of Andronicus. He was an energetic Emperor who attempted serious reforms, but he also initiated a reign of terror, torturing and executing suspected enemies. Soon surviving members of royal family appeared in west, begging for help. Ever since the days of Bohemond on the First Crusade, Normans had held visions of themselves as the rulers of Constantinople. Now in 1185 William assembled enormous force: 80,000 soldiers & 300 ships: for an invasion of the Byzantine Empire. William did not lead the expedition himself: in fact he never commanded forces in battle, showing how un-Norman the family had become! The army landed unopposed at Durazzo, in what is now Albania, and marched to Thessalonica, the second city of empire. Andronicus seemed incapable of organising resistance, and in August, Thessalonica fell, with appalling scenes of looting and the slaughter of perhaps 5,000 civilians. But then epidemics set in and the invaders were decimated before the march was resumed eastwards. The fleet was sent on ahead, to wait off Constantinople for the arrival of the land forces. But the army never got there! In September, the citizens of Constantinople, provoked beyond endurance, rose in revolt & proclaimed a nobleman, Isaac Angelus, as Emperor. The Great Palace stormed by mob and looted of the treasure of 800 years. Andronicus was caught trying to escape and was taken to Hippodrome, where he was publicly tortured to death. With sudden energy, the Byzantine army first turned back the Sicilian advance forces, put the main army off-guard by proposing peace talks, then suddenly turned on them and routed them. With the fleet not there in support, the army had to retreat back to the Adriatic coast over winter, through hostile territory, and only a few made it back home.
In 1186, William did a strange and ultimately fatal thing. He was married to Joanna, daughter of Henry II of England, but had no children, so the heir to his kingdom was thus his aunt, Constance, aged 31 but still unmarried. William now decided to marry her off to Henry, aged 21, son of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. This seems inexplicable. The Emperors always been enemies of the Sicilian kingdom, and were currently involved in a violent attempt to crush the independent cities of northern Italy: If Henry claimed the Sicilian throne through his wife, this would end the independence of the kingdom, and the Pope was unlikely to be happy at such a gigantic increase of Imperial power!
But for the moment, everyone’s attention was fixed on other matters. In July 1187 in Palestine the largest army the crusaders had ever put together was destroyed by Saladin at the Horns of Hattin, and in October, Jerusalem itself was forced to surrender to the conqueror (though without any violence). The new pope, Gregory VIII, at once proclaimed a new crusade, and all leading kings of Europe took up the call: Frederick Barbarossa, Philip Augustus of France, Richard the Lionheart of England, and William of Sicily, who, unlike his ancestors, was an enthusiastic crusader. The Sicilian fleet was already crucial in defending the remaining crusader cities against Saladin, and William began to raise forces; but then in 1189 he died, aged only 36 and still childless. He became known to posterity as “William the Good”, and in later years his reign was looked back on as a peaceful golden age for Sicily, but really had not been a success at all; especially in his failure to provide for the future! He is nowr emembered mostly for building the great cathedral at Monreale, which caused the Archbishop of Palermo, an Englishman, Walter of the Mill, to retaliate by himself building a new cathedral in the
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- تاریخ عضویت: پنجشنبه ۱۶ آبان ۱۳۸۷, ۸:۲۸ ب.ظ
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Re: آشنایی با اساتیر ملل(انگلیسی)
Could the Sicilian kingdom survive? Everyone knew Henry would try to take the throne in name of wife. But for the moment, this hung fire because of the start of the Third Crusade. Frederick Barbarossa was the first monarch to set off, but he never reached Palestine, for after leading his German forces across Turkey he was in June 1190 mysteriously drowned in little river Calycadnus, and his army, dispirited, mostly came home. In Sicily, hatred of the Germans meant for the moment, Tancred, an illegitimate grandson of King Roger, was able to take power. He at once faced a strange situation. William had offered the Sicilian fleet to the kings of England & France for their expeditions, and in September 1190 they both arrived in Messina. Philip of France got there first, in typically low-profile style, and was lodged in royal palace in the city. Richard arrived a few days later, in typical maximum-profile style, was disgusted to find Philip had taken the best quarters, and so seized a Greek monastery outside the walls, evicted the monks, and took it for himself. In early October, the two kings met Tancred’s ambassadors, but there were riots in the city and Richard summoned his men for an assault. Soon much of Messina was looted or in flames, and Richard built a huge wooden castle nearby named the “Mategrifon” - “Dominate the Greeks!” Philip of France carefully stood aloof from all this, but his worst suspicions of Richard were probably confirmed. Was Richard wanting to take Sicily for himself? As it was, Tancred had little option but to buy him off - and probably also calculated that when the Germans attacked, as they undoubtedly would at some time, Richard was only leader likely to be able to resist them. So Tancred and Richard were formally reconciled; Tancred supplied Richard with ships for his crusade, and Richard, according to some sources, gave Tancred an amazing present - none other than the sword Excaliber, found at Glastonbury earlier that year! In May 1191, to everyone’s relief, Richard sailed from Sicily on his crusade.
Barbarossa’s son, now the Emperor Henry VI, did not go on crusade. He had to start by securing control of Germany. In 1191 he invaded southern Italy and took several cities, but was halted by resistance at Naples; and with the Pope, as ever, intriguing against him and stirring up trouble in Germany, he had to withdraw. Tancred fought on, but in early 1194, he fell ill anf died. Could he have made a go of it, had he lived? This will never be known. As it was, his eldest son was already dead, and to rule the kingdom there was only an infant, “William III”. The child’s mother, Sibylla, was reluctantly forced to act as regent, but really there was very little point, as Henry gathered forces and marched south. This time Naples surrendered at his approach, but he ignored them: instead headed for Salerno. This city had changed sides once too often, so Henry stormed and destroyed it and, massacred the inhabitants. He met no further resistance as he headed for Sicily. Richard might have been willing to help, but his crusade had failed, and in trying to get back home overland from Venice he was caught by the Duke of Austria and handed over to Henry. Richard was freed only in return for an enormous ransom and the promise of 50 ships and 200 knights to serve in the Sicilian campaign. Faced with overwhelming force, Sicily surrendered without a fight, and on Christmas Day 1194 Henry was crowned King of Sicily in Palermo cathedral.
Where was Constance, in whose name he was ruling? She was not there, because at age of 40 & after nine years of marriage she was, for first time in her life, pregnant! She travelled slowly down through Italy, and on Boxing Day 1194, she gave birth in little town of Jesi. The event took place in large tent specially erected in the main square, with any respectable ladies of Jesi invited to attend as witnesses! The child was a boy, christened Frederick Roger after his grandfathers. Only then did Constance proceed to Sicily, and was crowned queen April 1195.
Henry proved to be worst-ever king of Sicily. Opponents were immediately arrested and imprisoned, often blinded. As for the little boy called William III, he simply disappeared: no-one knows what happened to him: some accounts say Henry had him blinded and castrated, others that he was merely confined to a monastery; all of which might both be true. In any event, we can be sure he did not survive very long. The island’s wealth was plundered for benefit of Germany (amongst other treasures, King Roger’s great ceremonial silk robe, woven for him by Saracen textile workers, was taken away and is now to be found in a Vienna museum). Ruthless taxes eventually led to rising in spring 1197, when locals attempted to overthrow Henry and give the crown to one William Monaco. The revolt was put down by German troops, and the conspirators publicly crucified or burnt alive, with William Monaco symbolically executed by having a red-hot iron crown nailed to his head. The unhappy Constance was forced to watch this edifying ceremony. Possibly Henry suspected her of complicity: certainly she would have known many of the conspirators from her childhood. That September, to everyone’s relief, Henry died of dysentery. Queen Constance survived him by just a year, dying in November 1198.
But it wasn’t the end! There was Constance’s baby son, Frederick. The little orphan was prudently placed under the guardianship of the Pope for safekeeping. He was now by inheritance Frederick II, King of Sicily and prospective Holy Roman Emperor, but with his mixed ancestry he proved to be far more Sicilian than German in outlook. He went on to become the most spectacular monarch of the Middle Ages: “stupor mundi“ he was nicknamed: the wonder of the world; though considered by the Popes to be the very incarnation of the devil upon earth. But that’s another
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Let your success
Be your noise
Let your success
Be your noise
-
- پست: 934
- تاریخ عضویت: پنجشنبه ۱۶ آبان ۱۳۸۷, ۸:۲۸ ب.ظ
- سپاسهای ارسالی: 1043 بار
- سپاسهای دریافتی: 3151 بار
Re: آشنایی با اساتیر ملل(انگلیسی)
Osbernus
De expugnatione Lyxbonensi, 1147
[The Capture of Lisbon]
The first groups to depart on the Second Crusade were Anglo-Norman and Flemish sailors and troops who left Dartmouth on May 19, 1147 bound for Spain. Their goal was to conquer a number of position on the west coast of Iberia, among them the city of Lisbon. Affonso I of Portugal was already in the field there when the Anglo-Norman troops landed on the beaches in June 1147
An account of the expedition survives, written by Osbernus
The city of Lisbon at the time of our arrival consisted of sixty thousand families paying taxes-this figure includes the suburbs round about, except the free ones, which pay taxes to no one. A circular wall there surrounds the top of the hill and, at the left and right, the city walls descend to the banks of the Tagus River. The suburbs, down below the city wall, are cut into the banks of the river in such a way that each of them has a superbly fortified citadel. The place is girded with pitfalls. The city was populous beyond belief, for, as we learned from its alcayde, or governor, after the capture of the city, it had one hundred fifty-four thousand men, not counting women and children, but including the citizens of Scantarem who had been expelled during this year from their stronghold and who were living in Lisbon as guests and immigrants. This number also included the leading citizens of Cintra, Almada, and Palmela, and many merchants from all parts of Spain and Africa. Although there were many citizens, the city had only fifteen thousand lances and shields with which to arm its men. They therefore came out in shifts, exchanging their weapons with one another, as their prince decreed.
The city's buildings were jammed so closely together that it was scarcely possible, save in the merchants' quarters, to find a street more than eight feet wide. The reason for such a dense population was that there was no established religion there. Each man was a law unto himself. As a result the basest element from every part of the world had gathered there, like the bilge water of a ship, a breeding ground for every kind of lust and impurity
On the vigil of St. Peter the Apostle [June 30 1147] we arrived there at the dinner hour. After the meal some of our men landed from the ships on the shore next to the city. The Moors opposed their landing, but they were unable to withstand our forces and were driven back, not without losses, to the gate of the suburb. Saher of Archelle, however, angered at the enemy's scheme, called our men back from the attack and thanked God that, unlike those who had previously attempted this task, we had had a different experience at the outset. He convoked those who were there and ordered that the tents be pitched atop the hills which overlooked the town, barely a stick's throw away. He held that it would be a shame to give ground after the first brush with the enemy, lest we seem to be yielding to them. All those present favored his stand. When the first watch of the night came, however, only two tents - those of Hervey of Glanville and Saher of Archelle - had been pitched, for all the others had gone back to the ships. Although there were but a few of us - a mere thirty-nine -we kept watch, not without fear, through the night and so celebrated the solemn vigil of St. Peter with our hauberks on. In the morning everyone pitched his tent as quickly as he could, as if they had not known before about our situation. As bad previously been arranged, the bishops who were with us went to the King to make him come out to meet us. They returned with him in a short time, since he had been in the vicinity for more than eight days awaiting our arrival. He had heard of our coming from those of our men who had separated from our expedition and had come in five ships after a five-day sail from Dartmouth. This group had arrived eight days earlier than we did. When the King arrived, therefore, almost all of us, rich and poor, went out to meet him as usually happens in such a mob. When the King inquired who were the chief men among us, or whose advice carried most weight with us, or if we had entrusted the charge of replying for the whole army to anyone, he was told in short order that we had so-and-so as our chief men, that their advice and actions carried the most weight, but that they had not yet decided to whom they would entrust the office of spokesman....
Representatives were elected from among our leaders, together with those of the men from Cologne and Flanders, so that they could act on our behalf with the King and reach a definite agreement between us and him. Later, the representatives together with the King, the Archbishop and the bishops, the clergy, and the laity caused the protocol of the confirmation of the agreements to be published before everyone in these words:
"Let the terms of the agreement reached between me and the Franks be known to all sons of the Church, both present and to come. Namely that I, Affonso, King of the Portuguese, with the consent of all my people, so that it may be remembered by future generations, do provide by this protocol of confirmation that the Franks who shall remain with me in the siege of the city of Lisbon shall have and take into their power and possession the goods of whatever kind belonging to the enemy and that I and my men shall have no part whatever of them. The Franks shall freely have the ransom money from the enemy prisoners who are taken alive and who wish to be ransomed. The prisoners, moreover, they shall release to me. If they should, perchance, take the city, they shall have it and hold it until it has been searched and despoiled, both of prisoners for ransom and of everything else. Then, when it has been as thoroughly searched as they wish, they shall turn it over to me. Afterwards, the city and the conquered territory shall, under my direction, be divided among the Franks according to ranks, as these are best known to me, to be held in accordance with the most honorable customs and liberties of the Franks.
Over them there shall be reserved for me only the power of an advocatus. I release firmly and in good faith, moreover, the ships and goods of the men who shall have been together with me at the siege of Lisbon and their heirs from all of the commercial tax which is commonly known as the pedatica from this time onward in perpetuity throughout my whole land. . . ."
Twenty sure hostages, bishops and laymen, were given on oath and warranty, on behalf of the King for the observance of this agreement. The King swore, moreover, that he would observe the treaty and agreement aforesaid. He further agreed that he would not desert us unless he were stricken with a mortal sickness or unless his lands were occupied by the enemy. . . . We also bound ourselves likewise to uphold the agreement, took an oath, and gave twenty hostages....
When morning came the constables and leaders of our side went again to the King's court at about the ninth hour of the day in order to turn over the hostages and to attend to the many things necessary for the siege. Those of our boys who were carrying slings, meanwhile, provoked the enemy into advancing onto the field with the result that, being the more provoked by the slinging of stones from a distance, the enemy ventured a major attack. As our men, little by little, armed themselves, the enemy shut themselves within the suburb. They threw stones from the roofs of the houses which were enclosed by parapets, and thus they made it difficult for our men to enter. Our men, who were looking for an opening whereby they might get in, if there were such a thing, drove them back into the middle of the suburb. There they put up a strong resistance to us. Our men, little by little, increased in numbers and made a fiercer attack. Many, meanwhile, were struck by arrows and the missiles of the balistas and fell, for the volley of stones made it impossible to approach closer. Thus a great part of the day was spent. Finally, at sunset, our men got through some twisting passages which were scarcely passable even for unarmed men and, after a major encounter, occupied part of a hill....
The Moors , meanwhile, made frequent sorties against our men by day because they held three gates against us. With two of these gates on the side of the city and one on the sea, they bad an easy way to get in and out. On the other hand, it was difficult for our men to organize themselves. The sorties caused casualties on both sides, but theirs were always greater than ours. While we kept watch, meanwhile, under their walls through the days and nights, they heaped derision and many insults upon us. They considered us worthy of a thousand deaths, especially since they thought that we spurned our own things as vile and lusted after others' goods as precious. Nor did they recall doing us any injury, save that if they had anything of the best quality in their possession we might consider them unworthy of having it and judge it worthy of our possession. They taunted us with the many children who were going to be born at home while we were gone and said that our wives would not be anxious about our deaths, since home was well supplied with little bastards. They promised that any of us who survived would go home miserable and poverty-stricken and they mocked us and gnashed their teeth at us. They also continuously attacked Blessed Mary, the mother of God, with insults and with vile and abusive words, which infuriated us. They said that we venerated the son of a poor woman with a worship equal to that due to God, for we held that he was a God and the Son of God, when it is apparent that there is only one God who began all things that have begun and that he has no one coeval with him and no partaker in his divinity.... They attacked us with these and similar calumnies. They showed to us, moreover, with much derision the symbol of the cross. They spat upon it and wiped the feces from their posteriors with it. At last they urinated on it, as on some despicable thing, and threw our cross at us
De expugnatione Lyxbonensi, 1147
[The Capture of Lisbon]
The first groups to depart on the Second Crusade were Anglo-Norman and Flemish sailors and troops who left Dartmouth on May 19, 1147 bound for Spain. Their goal was to conquer a number of position on the west coast of Iberia, among them the city of Lisbon. Affonso I of Portugal was already in the field there when the Anglo-Norman troops landed on the beaches in June 1147
An account of the expedition survives, written by Osbernus
The city of Lisbon at the time of our arrival consisted of sixty thousand families paying taxes-this figure includes the suburbs round about, except the free ones, which pay taxes to no one. A circular wall there surrounds the top of the hill and, at the left and right, the city walls descend to the banks of the Tagus River. The suburbs, down below the city wall, are cut into the banks of the river in such a way that each of them has a superbly fortified citadel. The place is girded with pitfalls. The city was populous beyond belief, for, as we learned from its alcayde, or governor, after the capture of the city, it had one hundred fifty-four thousand men, not counting women and children, but including the citizens of Scantarem who had been expelled during this year from their stronghold and who were living in Lisbon as guests and immigrants. This number also included the leading citizens of Cintra, Almada, and Palmela, and many merchants from all parts of Spain and Africa. Although there were many citizens, the city had only fifteen thousand lances and shields with which to arm its men. They therefore came out in shifts, exchanging their weapons with one another, as their prince decreed.
The city's buildings were jammed so closely together that it was scarcely possible, save in the merchants' quarters, to find a street more than eight feet wide. The reason for such a dense population was that there was no established religion there. Each man was a law unto himself. As a result the basest element from every part of the world had gathered there, like the bilge water of a ship, a breeding ground for every kind of lust and impurity
On the vigil of St. Peter the Apostle [June 30 1147] we arrived there at the dinner hour. After the meal some of our men landed from the ships on the shore next to the city. The Moors opposed their landing, but they were unable to withstand our forces and were driven back, not without losses, to the gate of the suburb. Saher of Archelle, however, angered at the enemy's scheme, called our men back from the attack and thanked God that, unlike those who had previously attempted this task, we had had a different experience at the outset. He convoked those who were there and ordered that the tents be pitched atop the hills which overlooked the town, barely a stick's throw away. He held that it would be a shame to give ground after the first brush with the enemy, lest we seem to be yielding to them. All those present favored his stand. When the first watch of the night came, however, only two tents - those of Hervey of Glanville and Saher of Archelle - had been pitched, for all the others had gone back to the ships. Although there were but a few of us - a mere thirty-nine -we kept watch, not without fear, through the night and so celebrated the solemn vigil of St. Peter with our hauberks on. In the morning everyone pitched his tent as quickly as he could, as if they had not known before about our situation. As bad previously been arranged, the bishops who were with us went to the King to make him come out to meet us. They returned with him in a short time, since he had been in the vicinity for more than eight days awaiting our arrival. He had heard of our coming from those of our men who had separated from our expedition and had come in five ships after a five-day sail from Dartmouth. This group had arrived eight days earlier than we did. When the King arrived, therefore, almost all of us, rich and poor, went out to meet him as usually happens in such a mob. When the King inquired who were the chief men among us, or whose advice carried most weight with us, or if we had entrusted the charge of replying for the whole army to anyone, he was told in short order that we had so-and-so as our chief men, that their advice and actions carried the most weight, but that they had not yet decided to whom they would entrust the office of spokesman....
Representatives were elected from among our leaders, together with those of the men from Cologne and Flanders, so that they could act on our behalf with the King and reach a definite agreement between us and him. Later, the representatives together with the King, the Archbishop and the bishops, the clergy, and the laity caused the protocol of the confirmation of the agreements to be published before everyone in these words:
"Let the terms of the agreement reached between me and the Franks be known to all sons of the Church, both present and to come. Namely that I, Affonso, King of the Portuguese, with the consent of all my people, so that it may be remembered by future generations, do provide by this protocol of confirmation that the Franks who shall remain with me in the siege of the city of Lisbon shall have and take into their power and possession the goods of whatever kind belonging to the enemy and that I and my men shall have no part whatever of them. The Franks shall freely have the ransom money from the enemy prisoners who are taken alive and who wish to be ransomed. The prisoners, moreover, they shall release to me. If they should, perchance, take the city, they shall have it and hold it until it has been searched and despoiled, both of prisoners for ransom and of everything else. Then, when it has been as thoroughly searched as they wish, they shall turn it over to me. Afterwards, the city and the conquered territory shall, under my direction, be divided among the Franks according to ranks, as these are best known to me, to be held in accordance with the most honorable customs and liberties of the Franks.
Over them there shall be reserved for me only the power of an advocatus. I release firmly and in good faith, moreover, the ships and goods of the men who shall have been together with me at the siege of Lisbon and their heirs from all of the commercial tax which is commonly known as the pedatica from this time onward in perpetuity throughout my whole land. . . ."
Twenty sure hostages, bishops and laymen, were given on oath and warranty, on behalf of the King for the observance of this agreement. The King swore, moreover, that he would observe the treaty and agreement aforesaid. He further agreed that he would not desert us unless he were stricken with a mortal sickness or unless his lands were occupied by the enemy. . . . We also bound ourselves likewise to uphold the agreement, took an oath, and gave twenty hostages....
When morning came the constables and leaders of our side went again to the King's court at about the ninth hour of the day in order to turn over the hostages and to attend to the many things necessary for the siege. Those of our boys who were carrying slings, meanwhile, provoked the enemy into advancing onto the field with the result that, being the more provoked by the slinging of stones from a distance, the enemy ventured a major attack. As our men, little by little, armed themselves, the enemy shut themselves within the suburb. They threw stones from the roofs of the houses which were enclosed by parapets, and thus they made it difficult for our men to enter. Our men, who were looking for an opening whereby they might get in, if there were such a thing, drove them back into the middle of the suburb. There they put up a strong resistance to us. Our men, little by little, increased in numbers and made a fiercer attack. Many, meanwhile, were struck by arrows and the missiles of the balistas and fell, for the volley of stones made it impossible to approach closer. Thus a great part of the day was spent. Finally, at sunset, our men got through some twisting passages which were scarcely passable even for unarmed men and, after a major encounter, occupied part of a hill....
The Moors , meanwhile, made frequent sorties against our men by day because they held three gates against us. With two of these gates on the side of the city and one on the sea, they bad an easy way to get in and out. On the other hand, it was difficult for our men to organize themselves. The sorties caused casualties on both sides, but theirs were always greater than ours. While we kept watch, meanwhile, under their walls through the days and nights, they heaped derision and many insults upon us. They considered us worthy of a thousand deaths, especially since they thought that we spurned our own things as vile and lusted after others' goods as precious. Nor did they recall doing us any injury, save that if they had anything of the best quality in their possession we might consider them unworthy of having it and judge it worthy of our possession. They taunted us with the many children who were going to be born at home while we were gone and said that our wives would not be anxious about our deaths, since home was well supplied with little bastards. They promised that any of us who survived would go home miserable and poverty-stricken and they mocked us and gnashed their teeth at us. They also continuously attacked Blessed Mary, the mother of God, with insults and with vile and abusive words, which infuriated us. They said that we venerated the son of a poor woman with a worship equal to that due to God, for we held that he was a God and the Son of God, when it is apparent that there is only one God who began all things that have begun and that he has no one coeval with him and no partaker in his divinity.... They attacked us with these and similar calumnies. They showed to us, moreover, with much derision the symbol of the cross. They spat upon it and wiped the feces from their posteriors with it. At last they urinated on it, as on some despicable thing, and threw our cross at us
Work hard in silence
Let your success
Be your noise
Let your success
Be your noise
-
- پست: 934
- تاریخ عضویت: پنجشنبه ۱۶ آبان ۱۳۸۷, ۸:۲۸ ب.ظ
- سپاسهای ارسالی: 1043 بار
- سپاسهای دریافتی: 3151 بار
Re: آشنایی با اساتیر ملل(انگلیسی)
[Finally, after the siege had lasted for nearly seventeen weeks, on October 23 we] decided, when all had returned to the camp, to enter the town at sword's point. The men of Cologne and the Flemings, meanwhile, were indignant because the King seemed to be favoring the hostages. They rushed armed out of their camp to sieze the hostages violently from the King's camp and to take vengeance on them. All around there was tumult and clashing of arms. We were midway between the King's camp and theirs, still talking and waiting, and we reported to the King what was being prepared, The Flemings' leaders, Christian and the Count of Aerschot, although they were barely armed, put a stop to the tumult among their men as soon as they learned of it. When the tumult had been quieted they went to pacify the King, assuring him that they were not involved in this action. After he had taken surety from them and had finally quieted the Flemings down, the King ordered them to put down their arms, asserting roundly that he would put off the siege until the next day. It was decided, therefore, on the following day that all the followers of each of our leaders would swear fealty to the King on behalf of themselves and their people, to be kept so long as they remained in his land.
When these matters had been agreed upon by both sides, the arrangements which the Moors had proposed on the previous day for the delivery of the city, were accepted. It was decided among us that one hundred and forty of our armed men and one hundred and sixty of the Flemish and the Cologne contingents should enter the city before everyone else and peacefully take over the fortifications of the upper fortress so that the enemy might bring all of their money and possessions there and give a guarantee by swearing before our men. When all these things had been collected, the city was then to be searched by our men. If any further possessions were found, the man in whose house they were discovered was to pay for it with his head. When everyone had thus been despoiled, they were to be let go in peace outside of the city. When the gates had been opened and those who were chosen were allowed to enter, the men of Cologne and the Flemings thought up a sly method of deceiving us: they requested our men to allow them to enter first for the sake of their honor. When they had received permission and got a chance to enter first, they slipped in more than two hundred of their men, in addition to those who had been selected. These were also in addition to others who had already slipped through the ruined places in the walls which lay open to them, while none of our men, except those selected, had presumed to enter.
The Archbishop and the other bishops went in front of us with the Lord's cross and then our leaders entered together with the King and those who had been selected. How everyone rejoiced! What special glory for all! What great joy and what a great abundance there was of pious tears when, to the praise and honor of God and of the most Holy Virgin Mary the saving cross was placed atop the highest tower to be seen by all as a symbol of the city's subjection, while the Archbishop and bishops, together with the clergy and everyone, intoned with wonderful rejoicing the Te Deum, Laudamus and the Asperges me, together with devout prayers.
The King, meanwhile, went around the strong walls of the fortress on foot. The men of Cologne and the Flemings, when they saw in the city so many spurs to their greed, did not observe their oaths or their religious guarantees. They ran hither and yon. They plundered. They broke down doors. They rummaged through the interior of every house. They drove the citizens away and harassed thern improperly and unjustly. They destroyed clothes and utensils. They treated virgins shamefully. They acted as if right and wrong were the same. They secretly took away everything which should have been common property. They even cut the throat of the elderly Bishop of the city, slaying him against all right and justice. . . . The Normans and the English, however, for whom faith and religion were of the greatest importance, contemplating what such actions might lead to, remained quietly in their assigned position, preferring to stay their hands from looting rather than to violate the obligations of their faith and their oathbound association. This affair covered the Count of Aerschot, Christian, and their leaders with very great shame, for while their men had patently disregarded their oath, ours, by staying out of it, made the greed of the others plain. Finally they came to themselves and besought our men with earnest prayers that we should occupy the remaining sections of the city together with them so that, after the loot had been divided, all the injuries and thefts might be discussed peacefully and they would be prepared to make amends for the evils they had presumed to commit. The enemy, when they had been despoiled in the city, left the town through three gates continuously from Saturday morning until the following Wednesday., There was such a multitude of people that it seemed as if all of Spain were mingled in the crowd
Thereafter a miracle worthy of great admiration was reported: for fifteen days before the capture of the city, the enemy's food supplies bad become inedible because of an intolerable stench. Afterward we tasted them and found them pleasing and acceptable, both to us and to the enemy. When the city was despoiled, there was found in the cellars some eight thousand seams" of wheat and barley and some twelve thousand pints9 of oil. . . . There was discovered in their temple, which rises on seven ranks of columns with arches atop them, nearly two hundred corpses as well as more than eight hundred other people who were sick and remained there in all their squalor and
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[SIZE=85]Source
Osbernus, , De expugnatione Lyxbonensi, ed. William Stubbs, , Chronicles and Memorials of the Reign of Richard, Rolls series (London: Longmans, 1864), I, clv-clvi, clx-clxi, clxiv, clxvi, clxxviii-clxxx, 20-23, translated by James Brundage, The Crusades: A Documentary History, (Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press, 1962), 97-104 [External Link Removed for Guests]
Work hard in silence
Let your success
Be your noise
Let your success
Be your noise